Critics of the Kuenen-Wellhausen school suspect a strong lithola- trous element in the worship of ancient Israel. While the writer cannot admit that idolatry of any kind was an essential part of Nahweh worship, there seems to him abundant proof in the Old Testament of the adoption of customs that were formerly litholatrous, as is the case with Lamaism to-day. Indeed, one of the objects of this paper is to show how peculiarly Semitic this worship in some instances, and these talismans generally, are.* Dr. James Orr says regarding Asherah . . . "the trunk of a tree or a cone of stone which symbolized Asherah was regarded as a Bethel, or 'house of the Deity' wherein the god was immanent. The trunk of the tree was often provided with branches." Again, we gather from Rawlinson that Ashtoreth was the Female principle in Nature. She represented the moon and bore the head of a heifer with crescent like horns, and became sometimes Astarte of two forms. Asherah and Ashtoreth were at one time probably the same objects of worship in Babylonia. As we proceed the value of these references will be apparent. (See Journal of W. C. Research Society, 1922-3, p.59).

Stones are undoubtedly worshipped as gods or as the abode or garb of a god. This custom is quite common in the Min Valley, but even as far away as Kanze a conical stone resembling discoloured quartz is worshipped as a local deity (Sa bdag ) by Tibetans and Chinese. It is said by the latter to be peculiarly malignant .

A large number of designs of a talismanic nature have been collected by the writer and have appeared in the 1922-23 number of the Border Research Society. They are very frequent in Minyag and in most cases are fragments of quartz worked into the masonry. Occasionally, white- wash takes the place of the quartz fragments. The ox head with sprcading horns is very frequent. The sun, moon and stars are also common and suggest a former reverence for the planetary system. The stone talismans, however, are more general in other positions. They form capping stones for walls and corners of houses; they are the culminating points of religious mounds, graves, altars and shrines. They support the praying flags and are the material of which incense stoves are made. On the hill sides, also, the all-sufficient charm "Om mani padme hum" is displayed in glistening white quartz fragments. And, as an anticlimax, manure heaps often have a large cone nestling on their summits! The bleached skull of an ox with the spreading horns attached is sometimes seen in positions occupied by the quartz cones, and even on the Maui mounds. That we have here survivals of litholatry, zoolatry and a worship of the heavenly bodies, is extremely likely. But locally there is no clear idea of the original meaning. However, everyone agrees that they are charms, like the Mani flags. They arc mostly white stones, but in the ordinary Mani mounds this is not so; and granite and even black material may be used at times. The frequent association of branches of trees with the mounds, pillars and cones of stone is not only interesting as regards the question of origin, but seems to hint that the Mani praying flag may be a development of the secret bough and that the moss-clad branches of the sombre and mysterious forests were the parents of them all. Local explanations, while agreeing that the stone, and, indeed, white in any form, are charms, differ in detail. On the Yalung (right bank) the yak head design is said to commemorate the faithful ammal whose soul is now the protecting genius of the family. In Litang, the white stones are thought to bear the same relation to the god as the gala dress does to the people. Here we find the Bethel idea. In Libang the fir branch decked with tufts of wool is also a powerful talisman. In Badi-Bawang the stones are said to have the same duties as the praying flags," that is, they are powerful charms. A very common explanation is that they are "capping stones" giving a beautiful finish to erections of all kinds in the same way as snow peaks do to the mountains. Here we find a hint of the totem or fetish or god ending in an artistic principle; but again the Bethel idea is not far away. The white or Holy Stone was the palace of the god. But the Mountain God and the Sky God had their abodes far from the haunts of men. Could any place be more suitable for their dwellings than those grand, pure regions of eternal snow so common to the frontiers of Tibet? But domestication or bringing them under control was necessary, andthe Bethel of snow-like quartz was suggested. Even to-day the Tibetans may be seen piling up mounds of quartz and granite fragments to tempt the Sky God to dwell among them. These Bethels are common on all the great passes, and the energetic expressions of thanks (Gsol lo gsol lo) indicate that the god is thought to be residing in a house, not so much built with hands as tossed into a heap by shovels! But the idea may possibly be to tempt the gods to live in regions where their services are most needed.

2. The litholatry of Tibetan Tribesmen in spite of the settled habits of the people seems to have retained its desert peculiarities. Their altars, shrines and groves will illustrate what is meant; and one temple only will prove an exception. The stones for shrines, altars and objects of worship would be everywhere; the cattle and sheep would be part of their every day life; and the grove would represent the oasis near to which they would reside for longer or shorter periods.

A very important litholatrous grove-the only one visited by the writer-is on the left bank of the Lifan River, about three miles below the town. It is a rough square of virgin jungle on a rather bare mountain side. Nothing in the nature of vegetation is added and nothing is taken away. It is Holy Ground. In the center, in a rough wooden shed, a white cone of stone, stained with the juices of green juniper smoke and gory with the blood of animals, is enthroned as the Primordial, Eternal Substance. No doubt the Mountain God, perhaps one with, or nearly related to, the God of the Heavens, is intended. In the grove are sacrificial platforms and shrines on which the heads with the branching horns of steers lately sacrificed are displayed. This grove suggests to the writer a strong flavour of Mazdaism.

The altars are very common and prominent, if miniature, features of the landscape. They are each mounted by a long, slender slab of quartz which is remarkably like the Lingam decorations of ancient altars seen by the writer in Java. At the two sides, at least, are the spreading horns of an animal or their imitation in stone or wood. Their relation to the worship in parts of the Min Valley at least is indicated by the translation of an account written in Chinese by one of the Chiang leaders * " The Animal Sacrifice of the Wei Chow natives.

(1) In every district and settlement either below a cliff, in groves, or in a wilderness, a stone altar from four to six feet high is reared and a white stone erected on the summit. (2) Every year in the first or sixth month-it may be early or late-and in the tenth (the tenth month is most popular) a lamb is sacrificed. This has been a fixed custom from earliest generations. A male lamb without blemish is required. (3)Unleavened wheaten cakes are used at the sacrifice; and the flesh of the lamb is eaten by the community afterwards. (4) The mouth and feet of the animal are cut off and the sinews and testes plucked out and sacrificed altogether on the altar. (5) Wheat straw is put in a basin into which the sacrificial blood is drained in preparation for the sprinkling. The sacrifice is eaten only by members of the clan initiated by the separation" ceremony. (7) The "cutting" or "separation" ceremony is as follows: The natives when young lead out a lamb {for sacrifice). A white string is tied to the neck (of the infant) ;* then a section of little more than a foot long is knotted off and a few inches severed with a knife."

My only comment on the above is that the Chiang authority had - been reading the Mosaic Law and had an idea that his tribesmen were submerged Israelites. In the last paragraph, where he says that circum- - cision was totally unintelligible to him, he was probably thinking of Exodus 13/13. Students of Comparative Religions, whilc not connecting the Bethels, Paschal Lambs, unleavened bread, blood sprinkling and the plucking of sinews with Moses and the Law, will do well to infer very remote Semitic origins. The analogies may prove to be influences.

3. But there is a bona fide temple where litholatry explains its existence. On the left bank of the To or Lifan River opposite the new Chinese settlement of Tong Hwa, is a depression in the mountain with settlements and agricultural areas. It is fringed above by an irregular rim, as a rule over 11,000 feet. Here at one time lived a Chiang Ring who suffered, it is said, for righteousness sake. At the present time the major portion of the depression, about 30 square miles. with its fields, castles and population, is sagging down to the river, but so leisurely that no harm is being done. The people are almost pure Chiang, and on the summit mentioned they have a temple known as the Peh , Kong Sze or "White Vacancy Temple." It was the Bethel par excelence of the litholaters, and under its shadow live yaks, which, burdened with the sins of the people, were driven into unknown wastes beyond. Strange and persistent stories were told, also, of the fury of the God of Fire, who seemed to amuse himself aiming thunderbolts at the helpless temple. Here was a challenge, then, for bold men; but a climb of 6,000 feet in a burning sun over a steep rough road long influenced me unfavourably. However, in July and August, 1921, pilgrimages were made in spite of Azazel and the Fire God.

On the way up each time we camped in a dirty castle about at 8,500 feet. The people, who had illegally rented fields to opium smugglers, were inquisitive, unfriendly and expert at coming to wrong conclusions. They tried, also, to hinder us from visiting the White Vacancy.

"Where are you going and what do you want? Opium?" quizzed the village buck.

Missionary: "No, we are visiting the Vacancy Temple."

Buck: "Be careful, if you are not pure in heart, the God of Fire will incinerate you."

Missionary: "Is that so! Have you been to the Temple?"

Buck: (who probably visits the peak one hundred times a year -smiling): "No; I am not good enough !"

We found the White Vacancy small and unpretentious. It was built with stone, and, no doubt on account of snow, had Chinese roofs. The view from the tiny plateau on which it stands is far - extending and unusually grand. But the temple was my special quest. Chinese characters above the main entrance showed how catholic the Worshippers could be, for among the Patrons were "Sacred Ancestor," "Mother Earth" and "all Gods." On a large "pien "was an inscription in unknown letters which, some insist, were made by mediums in a frenzy of spirit possession. On each side of the door were sentiments in scroll form with the name of the temple as the starting point. The meaning may be "The Pure Eye is Omniscient," and "The Vacuum is Omnipotent." Perhaps the whole Vault of Heaven is intended, and, with the peculiarites mentioned in other parts of the paper, we might suspect a Mazdaic influence-Chura, the sole Creator of Light, and Mazda, the Omniscient One. The inner script consists of Chinese characters broken up and arranged in unusual ways. It is after the manner of the Kitan Tartars, but may be nonsense. Inside, Chinese idols were numerous; but the worshippers were manifestly litholaters. Some ikons," phallic cowry shells and conches showed that lamas also bowed "in the House of Rimmon." The Gods of the Ghiang were three large conspicuous cones of white or gray quartz in front of the same number of gilded idols, t and a fragment of the same material said to be the Fire God. The names of the large cones are Peh Lala, Peh Haha and Pen Hsihsi. The story of their apotheosis is on the whole rather silly. Ages ago these divine stones flew out from Tibet. No one recognized their value until, one day in 1910 inscribed slips of paper began to fall around the villages. Lamas alone-there are none in the district could read the writing. The revelation was that the stones were powerful gods and it would be necessary to build them a "House" on the Peak of the Thunder Spirit. And it was so. In spite of numerous fatalities from lightening, the Pure Vacancy Temple was built and now is an important objective for pilgrims of all lands.

3. The Pure Vacancy Temple has only one priest or Shaman. He was very dirty with a hunted look. As lightening is almost continually striking the temple, he lives most dangerously. We could not but sympathise with him as he showed us rents made in walls and beams by the God of Fire within the last week.

While we must claim the "Pure Vacancy" as a non-Chinese temple and not controlled by Lamaism, the Tibetan priests worship there. The tradition mentioned also illustrates their methods-an ability both to incorporate new and useful elements into their own system, and to exploit the superstitious and religious ardour of untutored men wherever found.

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