A climate usually very dry, with great extremes of heat and cold, and a very dense population whose only means of securing heat is to burn what it can forage here and there, are conditions eminently unfavourable to conifers. If an elm, a willow, or a sophora be cut down, it will still grow again, but a pine once cut does not sprout, while if the ground is constantly scraped and picked clean there can be no question of natural regeneration.

Only those species of conifers, which are used in graveyards will, therefore, be found on the plains: the mountains offer a greater variety, but there are alas very few places left, where the semblance of a forest can be seen. All the conifers of North China have already been described and I can do no better than to refer the reader to "Plantae Wilsonianae ' by Prof. Sargent, to "Genus Pinus" by G. R. Shaw, to "Conifers of Japan" by E. H. Wilson, and to the "Enumeration of the Ligneous plants of North China" now being published by Mr. A. Rheder in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. It seems, however, that a few supplementary notes regarding their habitat, use and culture, with a little folklore, might be of interest. Thus I shall sum up what I myself have observed.

The specimens which have served as basic material for these observations were all identified at the Arnold Arboretum; they all come from the Yellow River basin, i.e. from Chihli, Shantung and Shansi provinces, also from the north of Kiangsu, Honan and Shensi.

Ginkgo biloba, L.
Neither in North China, South China, nor elsewhere, has the ginkgo been observed in a wild state and it is even probable that in North China it was introduced or reintroduced only in comparatively recent times. There is no proper name for the ginkgo in wen-li, although all the larger species like the pine, poplar, willow, oak, etc., are each designated by an appropriate character; this seems to indicate that at the beginning of historical times the ginkgo did not exist in the northern provinces where the language was first formed. In colloquial language and style the ginkgo is simply known by a polysyllable, as is the case with all plants 5 introduced from other countries. The name at present is pai-kuo, or white fruit. The Kuang Kiun Fang Pu, a large encyclopaedia of the vegetable kingdom, published at the beginning of the 18th century, and which republishes information contained in previous works, tells us that formerly this name was ya-kiao-tze, or duck foot, and that it was changed to yinhsing, or silver apricot, at the time of the Sungs, when the ginkgo was first offered as tribute. Nowhere have I seen the name yin-kuo, or silver fruit, which Kaempfer transcribes as ginkgo, nor does it appear either among the names noted by Matsumura (Chinese names of Plants). Dr. Bretschneider, who has made a painstaking research of all the Chinese names of plants appearing in the Classics, does not seem to have found the ginkgo among them; a work of the Sung period (shih Hua Tsung Kuei) says: "the duck-foot tree was formerly unknown in the capital, but one 5 named Li Wen Huo brought some from the south and planted them in his garden, where they gradually multiplied so that now the ginkgo can scarsely be called a rarity from the south."

The ginkgo endures cold very well, but in the northern provinces its first ten years are generally difficult and its growth is much slower than in the Yangtze provinces.

In North China, the ginkgo is essentially a tree of temples and monasteries, and is never seen in private gardens. The reason is that the ginkgo is supposed to receive the visits of the shen, or good genii, who, coming down from the tree, can find a suitable reception in the temple, while a private house would be unworthy of receiving them. In the garden of the house I occupy in Peking is an old ginkgo; all the Chinese who come in are astonished and never fail to say "Ah, this is an ancient temple ground," which is true.

The ginkgo is not common enough in North China to be of ordinary use. The Kuang Kiun Fang Pu informs us that its wood is much sought after by geomancers to make charms "which attract devils and genies." The nut of the ginkgo appears among the hsi-huo, fruits of happiness, which are seen at marriages; it is then dyed red. The above mentioned work says "the fruit of the ginkgo has a sweet taste, is slightly bitter, astringent, and non-poisonous; if eaten raw, it neutralizes the effects of wine, reduces mucus, combats the effects of poison, and kills worms; if eaten cooked, it warms the lungs, improves respiration, stops coughing; the juice extracted from the fruit also serves to cleanse grease spots from clothes. But one must not eat too much ginkgo as it is apt to interfere with respiration, make the stomach swell, and make one feel dizzy and fatigued."

The San Yuan Yen Show likewise says: "he who eats 1~000 ginkgo nuts will die; formerly, during a famine, some poor wretches began to eat ginkgo nuts, but those who ate to satiety died the next day."

Finally we are told that children who eat too many ginkgo nuts get convulsions, and that if one eats them with eels it will cause the disease called" the soft wind."

Cephalotaxus drupcea, S. and Z. var. sinensis, Rehd. and Wilson.

This species is found here and there in Shensi and Honan, sometimes in southern Shansi, generally between 1,000 and 1,500 metres, but nowhere in abundance, and I do not think it has been observed further north. The Chinese name is yen - pai, or thuja of the rocks.

Taxus sp.

The only yew ever seen in the Yellow River basin is the one collected by Purdom on the Tai Pei Shan (Shensi), and which was identified as T. cuspidata, var. chinensis, Rehd. and Will. but the Tai Pei Shan is just on the border line and its entire south slope undoubtedly belongs to the Yangtze basin. Pinus Armandii, Franchet. The pines of China have been referred to four species, which are:

Pinus massoniana, Lambert              Pinus bungeana, Zucc.
Pinus armandii, Franchet                  Pinus sinensis, Lambert

The first belongs essentially to the semi-tropical zone and has never successfully introduced itself anywhere in the Yellow River basin.

The second is found in the Yellow River basin, but only in its southern portion.

The third does not grow as far south as the second, but is found more to the north and has even become acclimated, as a cultivated tree, as far north as Peking.

Finally, the fourth i9 found, on the one hand, as far south as Szechuan and Yunnan, and grows equally well, on the other hand, considerably north of the Great Wall.

To return to Pinus armandii, I must confess that I have not found it in great abundance anywhere. It is much sought after for the making of coffins, because the wood keeps a long time. To this tree more than to any other applies the Chinese proverb that . Nowhere has it become acclimated in the plain, and in Honan and Shensi I never saw it at an altitude of less than 1,000 metres. From time to time horticulturists do offer for sale seedlings, which they dug up from the mountains, but they must admit that these plants have not the slightest chance of withstanding the torrid heat of summer and even less the drying winds of spring. This pine must be rather widely distributed in Kansu, for its seeds are often offered for sale there; they are corn- estible and of good size.

In Ronan and Shensi, the Chinese name is yu-sung , or oily pine, or wu-chen-sung , five-needled pine, or tsing-sung, green pine. Pinus bungeana , Zucc. Wilson came across this species in West Hupeh ; it also grows wild in Western Honan , South and Central Shansi, and in East Shensi . I saw it in rather large numbers in the district of Lushih(Honan), always at about 1,500 metres altitude, clinging to the rocks; and also southwest of Taiyuanfu at the same altitude.

As a cultivated tree it is found northward as far as Peking, and eastward in several places in Shantung. The word cultivated is not quite correct, for the Chinese gave up its cultivation long ago. They prefer to go into the mountains to uproot young trees, to put them in nurseries and to sell them in clods five or six years later, always at a good price.

It is not that the seeds produced by the trees of Peking are bad, in fact they produce excellent results in Europe, but the seedlings in the Peking gardens cannot withstand the extremes of great dryness and tropical heat which are so characteristic of the North China plain.

Many of the plants introduced from the mountains perish, although in winter they are often protected with a sorghum screen, but this tree is so much sought after, and the importation from Shansi and Honan is so constant, that naturally a certain number of them survive. Once they are past the critical stage, many grow to a great size. The shape is irregular, sometimes a long shaft with a round head, sometimes a very short trunk with a sheaf of large branches. The wood i9 very brittle, but has a fine grain and a pretty colour, and is used to make coffins.

The most famous pines known are the kiu-lung of Kiai-Tai-Sze, near Peking, the two at the Jade Fountain, and the one at Yen-miao, in Chufu, Shantung. In Peking, the Chinese name is pai-kuo-sung, or white-boned pine (not white-fruit pine). In Honan it is called pai-pi-8ur;', or white-skin pine, or san-chen-sung, three-needle pine. In Shansi it is called kuatze-shu. Pinus sinensis, Lambert.

At Haichow (northern Kiangsu) and Peitaiho, and in other places along the coast, P. sinensis descends to the level of the plain, but as it leaves the shore and is exposed to the dry winds of the interior, it rises in altitude and goes up the mountains, where it generally takes the place of thuja. Where the latter disappears, the former appears, one thousand metres altitude marking the line of cleavage Pinus sinensis is more widely distributed than the two preceeding species, but true forest reserves have become very rare. The trees are generally trimmed as soon as they can be used for house-building. Pinus sinensis is not particular as to the kind of soil it grows in and is often found in almost pure schist or granite. In many places it has been tried for reforestation purposes and the peasants themselves often plant it in the mountains.

The pines seen on the plain near Peking have all been introduced from the mountain9, in the same way as Pinus bungeana ; their wood is not worth much and sells for the same price as Populus simonii. The wood obtained from the mountains is much better, but I do not know whether systematic tests have been made of it.

The Chinese name is sometimes black-pine, sometimes horse-tail pine, sometimes pig-skin pine, and sometimes two-needle pine.

Aside from the bamboo, there is probably no other tree in all the flora of China which has so greatly inspired poets and artists. Pages and volumes have at all times been devoted to the pine, chiefly to celebrate the virtues of such and such an individual, or the fame of such another. If a pine is favourably situated or has attained a goodly size, or has some historical association, one can be certain It bears a name. The character sung, which designates the pines, is itself composed of the character for wood and the character for prince, for" the pine is the prince of all trees."

Larix dahurica , Turcz , var , principis ruprechtii, Rehd. and Wils.

This is the only larch found in North China and it does not grow further south than central Shansi, which is not surprising for a tree which comes from the coldest regions of the Amur and Manchuria. Purdom saw it north of Jehol and on the Wu Tai Shan ; I found a few specimens in the mountains west of Peking, and many others in north and north-west Shansi, where up to 3,000 metres altitude they still cover large tracts specially in the districts of Ningwu, Tsinglo, Tsingyuan.

In Shansi it is used extensively as telegraph pole and in house build. ing (for supports, rafters, beams and columns), but the attempts made by various railway lines to try it for sleepers have all failed, for once it is dressed, the wood does not resist alternating dryness and heat, and cracks very easily. As a pile, used under water, the Chinese larch is very successful, and lasts very long.

The Chinese name is hung-tsien, which cannot be better translated than by red-fir, the word tsien having the same general significance as the word fir, which is applied alike to firs, larches and spruces.

Picea wilsonii, Masters and Picea meyeri, Rehder.

While the Yangtze basin can list at least twenty species of spruce, the Yellow River basin can produce only two, and these two at present are only to be met in a few out of the way places in Chihli and Shansi, where they still cover the summit of several mountain chains. They never grow lower than 1,000 metres and are really not at home except between 2,000 and 3,000 metres altitude.

In a very few cases only, have they been acclimatized in the plains. Horticulturists try hard to uproot from the mountains young spruce- trees, to sell them later at high prices and under high sounding names to wealthy Peking bourgeois, but nine times out of ten, if not 99 out of 100, the trees die. There is however a beautiful one in the Pei-hai, near the marble bridge.

The Chinese names are huei-tsien, gray-spruce, pai-tsien, white spruce, or tsing-tsien, green spruce.

Spruce wood is usually planed off into boards to make windows panels and doors. It is not durable. Larch and pine are preferred for the main support of the house. Pine is preferred for coffins.

It is a sorry spectacle to behold the way in which the last reserve of larch and spruce are exploited, or rather massacred, at the present time in Shansi. There is a waste of about 40 per cent. and it is much to be hoped that before talking of reafforestation the authorities will see to the preservation of what still exists.

In the mountains south of Sianfu, and on the Hua Shan, I found a spruce different from the two above-mentioned species, but the specimens have not yet been identified.

Abies sibirica, Ledebour, var, nephrolepis, Trautv.

This fir is still fairly common on the Siao Wu Tai Shan (Chihli) where it bears the name of pien yeh sung, flat-leaf-pine, or kuo-sung (?). Purdom also saw it on the Wu Tai Shan.

Other abies have been observed on the Tai Pei Shan, but this range can hardly be considered as part of Northern China for its entire southern slope belongs to the Han basin and many species that grow there are at the northern limit of their distribution.

Cunninghamia sinensis, Hooker.
I have seen one solitary example of this species, lost on the bank of the Iho, which is a tributary of the Loho; it is unfortunate that this tree cannot grow in the north, for it is really very useful.

Thuja orientalis, L.

Unlike all the preceding species, Thuja, or Arbor-vitae, especially likes low altitudes and is never found at more than 1,000 metres altitude. In the plains, it is seen everywhere, and with Populus tomentosa, Ulmus pamila, Salix matsudana, certainly constitutes eight tenths of the flora of villages and grave yards. Excess of humidity is fatal to Thuja, consequently, if a given district is destitute of thujas, it can be immediately concluded that the country is subject to inundations. On the other hand it withstands drought, heat and cold, grows in nearly all soils, and can withstand much hard treatment. Thousands are to be seen, which the peasants dare not cut down because they stand in temple grounds or grave yards, but from which they strip everything that looks like a branch; still the tree continues to live, looking like a feather duster, a long shaft with a few plumes at the end.

It is very easy to cultivate Thuja. Transplanting the seedlings offers no difficulty, the best time to do it is September, just after the hot weather. Thuja is a very useful species for reforestation of low hills in dry regions. It is found here in various forms which rather seem to be the result of soil and wind conditions. There is also a dwarf shape called feng-wei pai, or phoenix.tail-thuja, with numerous thin branches all springing from the basis without there really being a trunk. The other horticultural varieties which the thuja has produced in Europe are unknown here, or neglected.

Thuja and Juniperus are undoubtedly the longest lived-trees of China. The two most famous specimens I ever saw are the Sung Yang Kung thujas at the foot of Sungshan, one of which was already famous at the time of the Han dynasty, and that of Tsin Sze, near Tai Yuan Fu, which is supposed to date from the Chow dynasty. At Wang Kwai Chen, on the Tingchow road to Wu Tai Shan, is another likewise very beautiful tree which is about 10 metres in circumference at the base. The Tai Shan specimens are also very famous, but much smaller in diameter. There are also some very beautiful ones in Peking, in what is now the Central park, and at the Temple of Agriculture, they are said to date from the Mings.

The wood of the thuja is a very pale yellow, and has a fine grain; nowhere is it used for anything but the making of coffins.

Cupressus sp.
Under the names of mi-cken-sung and hsien-pai, horticulturists sefl two cypresses which cannot stand the Peking winter but which are seen, however, in all the gardens, planted in pots. Apparently they are introduced from the Yangtze. They are always grafted on Thuja.

Juniperus formosana, Hayata.
This species is fairly common in the gardens of Honan, Shantung and south Chihli, but does not extend to Peking; it is known under the name of yin-to-sung, or weeping-silver pine. It, too, is generally grafted on arbor-vites.

Juniperus squamata var. fargesii, Rehd. and Wilson.
Two coolies in my employ, who were crossing a desert part of Yo Yang Hsien, in Shansi, found a slope covered with a quantity of little junipers about 2-3 metres high. The sample they brought back was identified as Juniperus squamata, var. Fargesii.

Juniperus squamata var. meyeri. Rehd.
The small juniper introduced in America by Meyer and found by him in the gardens of Tientsin has been named Juniperus squamata var. Meyeri. It is the tsuei-pai of the Chinese, or the king-fisher juniper, which is so common in the gardens of wealthy people. Shantung, the place of origin given by Meyer, is correct in the sense that there is a large horticultural district there, the center of which is Tsaochow, which supplies many plants for the markets of Tientsin and Peking. But Changtefu, in Honan, also produces many tsuei-pai, which fetch a higher price than those of Tsaochow. The plant requires a good deal of care and cannot stand the damp climate of the Yangtze, it is always grafted on thuja and cultivated in pots.

The tsuei-pai grows very slowly and attains to a great age. That is why it is offered as a "longevity gift" at anniversaries. A handsome pair may cost as much as $100.

Juniperus pseudo-sabina.
Through the kindness of Father Mostaert, a Belgian Missionary who has been for 20 years in the Ordos, I received some seeds and speci mens of a creeping juniper which covers extensive places in sand deserts, where it is known as chow-pai, stinking thuja. It has also been observed by Father Licent west of Ninghsiafu, in the Alashan mountains. Prof. Sargent writes me that he considers it to be Juniperus pseudo-sabina, a tentative identification. This species would be very valuable for holding down the sand in all those regions of North China where the yellow wind causes so much damage, in winter and particularly in the spring.

Juniperus chinensis ,L.
Of all the conifers which have been mentioned, Juniperus chinensis is about the only one which is of practical interest to us for our gardens in North China. While larches, spruces, and abies absolutely refuse to grow in the plains, and pines can only exist there with difficulty, and since the thuja is not very decorative, the juniper, on the other hand, is beautiful and useful in more than a way. It is as good as the thuja in its ability to resist cold, heat and dryness; when planted closely and trimmed it makes magnificent hedges ; as an isolated specimen it offers many varieties of shape and colour, at least when it is young. As an avenue tree, it makes a handsome showing and no finer avenue is known in North China than the avenue of junipers south of the Temple of Heaven in Peking, or the one at the grave of Confucius in Shantung.

I do not think it has ever been observed in a wild state nor tried for afforestation. Like the arbor-vitae it does not like high mountains, but is much at its ease in the North China plains, which are by turn torrid or frozen, but very often exposed to the sunshine. The Juniperus chinensis that one may see in American or European parks are poor looking specimens, compared with the magnificent trees seen in Honan and Shantung.

If it is less widely distributed than thuja, it is because it is less easily cultivated; it takes two years for the seed to ripen, and the seedlings do not come out of the ground before the second year. Transplanting also requires more care than with thuja, but once it has had a good start it easily catches up the latter.

In Peking, it is always reproduced by seedlings; in Honan, by slips, from which stockier and more tufted, but sterile, plants develop. The colour also is different. All the juniperus seen in Hankow have the same compact form, and the same colour, as the Honan trees; in fact, they are not produced in Hupeh, but come from Yenlinghsien, which is an horticultural center south of Kaifeng, in Honan. Generally the Chinese pay no attention to the various forms the same bed of seedlings may produce and we have nothing here that resembles the multitude of names in European catalogues.

In literature, the tree is known under the name of kuei the common name is spiny-pine, tze-sung, or spiny thuja , tze-pai.

The wood is used only for making coffins. The Honanese do not like it because they say it makes the eyes fall out of corpses.

It is not highly valued in Peking either; it only costs $12 or $13 a Iiao, while arbor-vitae costs about $18. The reason is that in the ground it keeps a shorter time than thuja. I do not know whether it has been tried in the manufacture of pencils.

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